Confounder
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What does it mean?
A confounder can act as a common cause that distorts the association between an exposure and outcome. Causal ordering matters; a mediator on the pathway from exposure to outcome is different.
Think through an example.
An everyday example
Students taking extra classes have higher marks. If prior motivation affects both attendance and achievement, the entire difference cannot be attributed to extra classes.
Test your understanding.
True or false?
Every third variable associated with both variables must be a confounder.
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Sources and further reading
Explore the foundations and methodological details in these resources. Examples on this page were created for illustration.
- Penn State Source in EnglishBias, Confounding, Random Error, & Effect Modification